MK5GC

MK5GC

Incazelo emfushane:

Umkhiqizo we-MK5GC uwumkhiqizo wenethiwekhi eyinhloko ye-5G elula esekelwe kuphrothokholi ejwayelekile ye-3GPP. Umkhiqizo usebenzisa ukwakheka kwe-SBA microservice ukufeza ukuhlukaniswa okuphelele kwemisebenzi ye-network element(NE) kanye nemisebenzi yehadiwe, futhi ungasetshenziswa kumaseva ahlukahlukene efu kanye ne-x86. I-MK5GC ingasiza abasebenzisi benethiwekhi eyimfihlo ukwakha inethiwekhi eyinhloko ye-5G ngokushesha, ngokuguquguqukayo nangokusebenza kahle ngezindleko eziphansi kakhulu, ukuhlangabezana nezimo ezahlukahlukene zohlelo lokusebenza lwabasebenzisi benethiwekhi eyimfihlo, futhi isize abasebenzisi benethiwekhi eyimfihlo ukwenza kube yidijithali futhi baguquke ngokuhlakanipha.


Imininingwane Yomkhiqizo

Amathegi Omkhiqizo

Isingeniso

Isingeniso Somkhiqizo

Umkhiqizo we-MK5GC uwumkhiqizo wenethiwekhi eyinhloko ye-5G elula esekelwe kuphrothokholi ejwayelekile ye-3GPP. Umkhiqizo usebenzisa ukwakheka kwe-SBA microservice ukufeza ukuhlukaniswa okuphelele kwemisebenzi ye-network element(NE) kanye nemisebenzi yehadiwe, futhi ungasetshenziswa kumaseva ahlukahlukene efu kanye ne-x86. I-MK5GC ingasiza abasebenzisi benethiwekhi eyimfihlo ukwakha inethiwekhi eyinhloko ye-5G ngokushesha, ngokuguquguqukayo nangokusebenza kahle ngezindleko eziphansi kakhulu, ukuhlangabezana nezimo ezahlukahlukene zohlelo lokusebenza lwabasebenzisi benethiwekhi eyimfihlo, futhi isize abasebenzisi benethiwekhi eyimfihlo ukwenza kube yidijithali futhi baguquke ngokuhlakanipha.

Ukwakhiwa kwenethiwekhi okusekelwayo njengamanje kuboniswe esithombeni esingezansi:

Umfanekiso 1 Umdwebo wokwakhiwa kohlelo lwe-MK5GC

Umfanekiso 1 Umdwebo wokwakhiwa kohlelo lwe-MK5GC

Zonke izixhumanisi phakathi kwezakhi zenethiwekhi zisetshenziswa ngokuhambisana ngokuqinile nezinga le-3 GPP.

Incazelo yokusebenza

Izici zomkhiqizo kanye nemisebenzi yebhizinisi

Izici zomkhiqizo

• Ukwakhiwa kwe-SBA microservice okusekelwe ku-3GPP

• Ukufakwa kwesitsha se-cloud virtualization kungasetshenziswa

• Ukuxhumana okuzimele kwe-SA

• Ukuhlukaniswa kwe-CU

• Ukusekela ukunqunywa kwenethiwekhi

• Isekela kokubili ukuthunyelwa okuhlanganisiwe nokusatshalaliswayo

• Usekelo lokucwila komsebenzi wenethiwekhi

• Ukushintsha kokusekela

• Ukusekela izwi le-VoNR, umlayezo omfushane

 

Umsebenzi webhizinisi

➢ Indawo yokulawula: Ukubethela nokususa ukubethela kokuqinisekiswa kwe-5G, ukubhalisa, ukususa ukubhalisa, ukufaka amakhasi, isicelo sebhizinisi, Ukukhishwa, ukuphathwa kolwazi lomsebenzisi, ukuvinjelwa kokuhamba, umkhawulo wendawo, ukusungulwa kweseshini, ukuguqulwa nokukhululwa, ukukhethwa kwe-UPF, ukushintsha, izwi kanye nemiyalezo emifushane.
➢ Ubuso bedatha: kusekela ukuhlonza iphakheji enezingqimba ezintathu nezingqimba ezine kanye nokudlulisela imithetho, ukubopha kanye nokulawula ukugeleza okusekelwe ku-QoS, ukuphathwa kweseshini ye-PFCP, ukubika ukusetshenziswa kanye nezibalo kanye neminye imisebenzi.
➢ Isixhumanisi sokusekela Ngokusekelwe ekusekelweni okujwayelekile kwe-3GPP,

I-N1 / N2 / N3 / N4 / N5 / N6 / N7 / N8 / N9 / N10 / N11 / N12 / N13 / N14 / N15 / N22 / N26, Isekela isikhombimsebenzisi sesevisi esisekelwe ku-SBI, esingahlangabezana nokufakwa okuzimele noma okuhlangene kwento ngayinye yenethiwekhi.

Uhlu olunemininingwane lwemisebenzi

umsebenzi

umsebenzi ongaphansi

incazelo

Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi usekelonoma cha

Isevisi

Ukubhaliswa kwesevisi

 

ukwesekwa

Ukususwa kokubhaliswa kwesevisi

 

ukwesekwa

Ukutholwa kwesevisi

 

ukwesekwa

Isibuyekezo sesevisi

 

ukwesekwa

Ukugunyazwa kwesevisi

 

ukwesekwa

Isaziso sokubhalisela isimo sesevisi

 

ukwesekwa

ukuphepha kwezokuxhumana

I-AMF

Ubumfihlo bobunikazi bomsebenzisi

ukwesekwa

5 Isitifiketi se-GAKA

ukwesekwa

Okungavumelekile kokubhaliswa kwe-UE ngaphandle kwebhizinisi le-5G elinenkontileka

ukwesekwa

I-NAS yokuvikela ekuphindeni kabusha

ukwesekwa

Ukuvikelwa kokuwohloka kokushintsha kwe-Xn

ukwesekwa

Ukushintsha/ukubhalisa kokuhambisa i-N2 Kubuyekeza ukukhethwa kwe-algorithm yokuvikela i-NAS okushintshwe yi-AMF

ukwesekwa

Ukuphathwa kwamandla okuphepha e-UE okungavumelekile noma okungamukeleki

ukwesekwa

Imodi yokuphepha ye-NAS, ubuqotho, kanye nokuvikelwa kokubethela

ukwesekwa

Shintsha phakathi kokhiye oyimfihlo kanye nengxoxo ye-algorithm

ukwesekwa

Ukuqinisekiswa kokufinyelela kanye nokusekelwa okungajwayelekile

ukwesekwa

Ukusatshalaliswa Kabusha kwe-5G GUTI

ukwesekwa

I-SMF

Ukubaluleka kwenqubomgomo yokuphepha kwe-interface yomsebenzisi

ukwesekwa

I-SMF ihlola inqubomgomo yokuphepha kwesikhombimsebenzisi somsebenzisi ekushintsheni kwe-Xn

ukwesekwa

I-UPF

Ukuvikelwa kobumfihlo bedatha yomsebenzisi we-N3 interface

ukwesekwa

Ukuvikelwa kobuqotho bedatha yomsebenzisi we-N3 interface

ukwesekwa

Idatha yomsebenzisi we-N3 interface ngokumelene nokuvikelwa kokudlala kabusha

ukwesekwa

Ukuvikelwa kwedatha yomsebenzisi yesixhumi esibonakalayo se-N9 ku-PLMN

ukwesekwa

I-interface ye-N4 yokuvikela idatha yesignali

ukwesekwa

Ukuxhumana, ukubhaliswa, kanye nokuphathwa kokuhamba

Bhalisa / iya ku-rejista

Ukubhaliswa Kokuqala kwe-UE (i-SUCI)

ukwesekwa

Ukubhaliswa Kokuqala kwe-UE (5G-GUTI)

ukwesekwa

Izibuyekezo zokubhalisa kokuhamba

ukwesekwa

Ukubhaliswa ngezikhathi ezithile

ukwesekwa

I-UE iqala ukususwa kokubhaliswa okuvamile

ukwesekwa

I-UE iqala ukuvalwa kokubhaliswa

ukwesekwa

I-AMF iqala ukususwa kokubhaliswa

ukwesekwa

I-UDM iqala ukususwa kokubhaliswa

ukwesekwa

Ukususwa kokubhalisa okusobala

ukwesekwa

Isicelo sesevisi

Isicelo sebhizinisi esiqalwe yi-UE, isimo sokungenzi lutho

ukwesekwa

Isicelo sebhizinisi esiqalwe yi-UE, isimo sokuxhumana

ukwesekwa

Kukhona idatha yokuxhumanisa ohlangothini lwenethiwekhi, okubangela isicelo sesevisi

ukwesekwa

Kukhona isignali yokwehla kwesixhumanisi ohlangothini lwenethiwekhi, okubangela isicelo sesevisi

ukwesekwa

Inqubo yokukhishwa kwe-AN

Ukugeleza kokukhishwa kwe-AN okuqalwe yi-RAN

ukwesekwa

Ukugeleza kokukhishwa kwe-AN okuqalwe yi-AMF

ukwesekwa

Ukuphathwa kolwazi lomsebenzisi

Isaziso sokuvuselelwa kolwazi lokusayina i-AMF

ukwesekwa

Isaziso sokuvuselelwa kolwazi lokusayina i-SMF

ukwesekwa

I-AMF iqala inqubo yokuhlanza

ukwesekwa

Isibuyekezo sokucushwa

I-AMF iqala isibuyekezo sokucushwa kwe-AMF

ukwesekwa

I-AMF iqala isibuyekezo sokucushwa kwe-UE initiate

ukwesekwa

Imikhawulo yokuhambahamba

Ukuvinjelwa kwe-RAT

ukwesekwa

Umkhawulo wendawo engavunyelwe

ukwesekwa

Umkhawulo Wendawo Yesevisi

ukwesekwa

Ukuphathwa kokufinyeleleka

Ukuphathwa kokufinyeleleka kwe-UE kusesimweni sokungenzi lutho

ukwesekwa

Imodi ye-MICO

ukwesekwa

ukuphathwa kweseshini

Ukusungulwa kweseshini

I-UE iqalise ukwakha iseshini, isekela i-v4 / v6 / v4v6

ukwesekwa

Ukuguqulwa kweseshini

Ukuguqulwa kweseshini ye-PDU

ukwesekwa

I-UDM iqalise izinguquko zeseshini ye-PDU

ukwesekwa

I-PCF iqalise izinguquko zeseshini ye-PDU

ukwesekwa

Ukukhishwa kweseshini

I-UE iqalise ukukhishwa kweseshini

ukwesekwa

Ukukhishwa kweseshini kuqalwe ohlangothini lwenethiwekhi

ukwesekwa

Imodi ye-SSC

Inqubo yokuqondisa kabusha i-anchor yeseshini ye-PDC yemodi ye-SSC 2

ukwesekwa

Inqubo yokuqondisa kabusha i-anchor yeseshini ye-PDU yemodi ye-Multiple PDU session SSC 3

ukwesekwa

Inqubo yokuqondisa kabusha i-anchor yeseshini ye-PDU yemodi ye-IPV6 multi-homing mode SSC 3

ukwesekwa

Ukuphambuka kwe-ULCL uplink

Engeza amaphuzu e-anchor e-PDU session ahlanganisiwe kanye namaphuzu egatsha le-ULCL

ukwesekwa

Susa i-anchor yeseshini ye-PDU ehlangene kanye nephuzu legatsha le-ULCL

ukwesekwa

Shintsha ama-anchor eseshini e-ULCL kanye ne-PDU ahlangene

ukwesekwa

Engeza amaphuzu ahlukene e-PDU session anchors kanye namaphuzu egatsha le-ULCL

ukwesekwa

Susa amaphuzu ahlukene e-anchor yesikhathi se-PDU kanye namaphuzu egatsha le-ULCL

ukwesekwa

Shintsha amaphuzu ahlukene e-PDU session anchors kanye namaphuzu egatsha le-ULCL

ukwesekwa

Umsebenzi we-LADN

Ukusungulwa kweseshini yenethiwekhi yedatha yendawo

ukwesekwa

Ukukhululwa kweseshini okubangelwe yi-UE eshiya indawo yesevisi yenethiwekhi yendawo

ukwesekwa

Ukuvalwa kokuxhumeka kwesixhumi esibonakalayo somsebenzisi seseshini ye-PDU okubangelwa yi-UE eshiya indawo yesevisi yenethiwekhi yedatha yendawo

ukwesekwa

Isixhumi esibonakalayo somsebenzisi weseshini ye-PDU ukuze sisebenze

 

ukwesekwa

ukushintsha

Ukushintsha kwe-Xn

Ukushintsha kwe-Xn, akukho ukuphinda kusebenze i-UPF

ukwesekwa

Ukushintsha kwe-Xn, ukufaka i-I-UPF

ukwesekwa

Ukushintsha kwe-Xn, phinda ulayishe i-I-UPF

ukwesekwa

Ukushintsha kwe-N2

Ukushintsha kwe-N2, akukho ukuphinda kusebenze i-UPF

ukwesekwa

Ukushintsha kwe-N2, ukuxhuma kabusha i-I-UPF

ukwesekwa

Ukushintsha kwe-N2, ukuxhuma kabusha i-AMF

ukwesekwa

Ukusebenzisana kwe-4G/5G

Iswishi ye-4G/5G

5G kuya ku-4G

ukwesekwa

umlayezo wesikhundla

Inqubo yokubika indawo

 

ukwesekwa

ukulawula isu

Ukulawulwa kwesu le-AM

Ukusungulwa kwezinhlangano zenqubomgomo ze-AM

ukwesekwa

Ukuguqulwa kwezinhlangano zenqubomgomo ze-AM

ukwesekwa

Ukuphela kwenhlangano yenqubomgomo ye-AM

ukwesekwa

Ukulawulwa kwesu le-SM

Ukusungulwa kwezinhlangano zenqubomgomo ze-SM

ukwesekwa

Ukuguqulwa kwezinhlangano zenqubomgomo ze-SM

ukwesekwa

Ukuphela kwenhlangano yenqubomgomo ye-SM

ukwesekwa

Isigaba senethiwekhi

Ukufakwa kwezingcezu

 

ukwesekwa

Ukususwa kwesilayi

 

ukwesekwa

Ukukhetha izingcezu

Ukukhethwa kwezingcezu zokuqala ezibhalisiwe

ukwesekwa

Ukuqondiswa kabusha phakathi kwe-AMF, ngokusho kwesiqeshana

ukwesekwa

Ukukhethwa kwesigaba sokuqala sokusungulwa kweseshini ye-PDU

ukwesekwa

Lungiselela izingcezu ezizolethwa enkambisweni entsha

ukwesekwa

Umsebenzi wobuso bedatha

Ukuhlonza kanye nokudlulisela isevisi

Imithetho enezigaba ezintathu ikhomba futhi idlulisele phambili i-IPv4

ukwesekwa

Imithetho enezigaba ezintathu ikhomba futhi idlulisele phambili i-IPv6

ukwesekwa

Imithetho enezingqimba ezine ikhomba futhi idlulisele phambili

ukwesekwa

Ukuhlonza iphrothokholi ye-HTTP

ukwesekwa

Ukuhlonza iphrothokholi ye-DNS, FTP, kanye ne-MQTT

ukwesekwa

Ukubandlulula kwe-URL

ukwesekwa

Ukwehliswa kwesevisi

Ukuguqulwa kwenkonzo ngaphansi kwe-ULCL

ukwesekwa

Ukwehliswa kwenkonzo ngaphansi kwe-Multi-homing

ukwesekwa

Umaka wokugcina

I-Switch, i-UPF ayishintshi, i-UPF ithumela iphakethe lomaka wokuphela ngokwemiyalelo ye-SMF

ukwesekwa

Shintsha, ukushintsha kwe-UPF, i-UPF ithumela iphakethe lomaka wokuphela ngokwemiyalelo ye-SMF

ukwesekwa

Inqolobane yedatha

I-UPF downlink data cache njengoba kuboniswe yi-SMF

ukwesekwa

Ukuqaliswa kwesu

I-UPF ithola futhi ilandele imithetho yokuvala ekhishwe yi-SMF

ukwesekwa

 

I-UPF ithola futhi ilandele imithetho ye-QoS ekhishwe yi-SMF

ukwesekwa

Inhlangano ye-N4

Ukusungulwa kwenhlangano ye-N4, ukuvuselelwa, ukukhishwa, kanye nokutholwa kwenhliziyo

ukwesekwa

Iseshini ye-N4

Ukusungulwa, ukuvuselelwa, kanye nokukhishwa kwezikhathi ze-N4

ukwesekwa

Ukubikwa kwezinga leseshini kwesixhumi esibonakalayo se-N4

Umbiko wokusetshenziswa

ukwesekwa

Umbiko wokutholwa kwethrafikhi

ukwesekwa

Umbiko wedatha yesimo sokungenzi lutho

ukwesekwa

Ukubika umsebenzi weseshini ye-PDU

ukwesekwa

Izilawuli zenqubomgomo kanye nokukhokhisa

Ukulawulwa kwenqubomgomo yokuphathwa kweseshini

Umsebenzi wokubopha

ukwesekwa

Ukulawulwa kanye nokusebenza kwenqubomgomo ye-QoS

ukwesekwa

Ukubopha kwe-Qos Flow

ukwesekwa

Ukuguqulwa kwenqubomgomo yokuphathwa kweseshini okuqalwe yi-SMF

ukwesekwa

Ukuguqulwa kwenqubomgomo yokuphathwa kweseshini okuqalwe yi-PCF

ukwesekwa

Ukuqedwa kwenqubomgomo yokuphathwa kweseshini okuqalwe yi-SMF

ukwesekwa

Ukulawulwa kwenqubomgomo yokufinyelela nokuhambahamba

Ukusungulwa kwenqubomgomo yokufinyelela nokuhambahamba

ukwesekwa

I-AMF iqalise izinguquko zenqubomgomo yokufinyelela nokuhambahamba

ukwesekwa

I-PCF iqalise izinguquko zenqubomgomo yokufinyelela nokuhambahamba

ukwesekwa

I-AMF iqalise ukuqedwa kwenqubomgomo yokufinyelela nokuhambahamba

ukwesekwa

Ukulawulwa kokukhokha

izabelo ezilawulwayo

ukwesekwa

Ukubika okusekelwe ezibalweni zethrafikhi

ukwesekwa

Ukuphathwa kwezingxenye zenethiwekhi

Ukuphathwa okuhlangene kwe-NE, kungasekela ukucushwa kwe-NE, isimo se-NE sombuzo, ukuqala kabusha kwe-NE neminye imisebenzi.

图片2

Umfanekiso 2 Ulwazi lokucushwa kwe-AMF NE

图片3

Umfanekiso 3 Ulwazi lokucushwa kwe-SMF NE

图片4

Isithombe 4 Ulwazi lokucushwa kwe-UDM NE

图片5

Umfanekiso 5 Ulwazi lokucushwa kwe-UPF NE

图片6

Isibonisi sesimo se-NE esingumfanekiso 6

Ingaqapha inani leziteshi eziku-inthanethi kanye ne-UE ngesikhathi sangempela, futhi inake i-cpu, imemori, idiski nezinye izimo ngesikhathi sangempela.

图片7

Umfanekiso 7. Ukuqapha ngesikhathi sangempela

Isimo se-UE esiku-inthanethi kanye nolwazi oluthile lungabukwa ngesikhathi sangempela.

图片8

Umfanekiso 8. Ulwazi lwe-UE oluku-inthanethi

Umbono wesikhathi sangempela wesimo sesiteshi sesisekelo esiku-inthanethi kanye nolwazi oluthile.

Isiqephu 9

Isithombe 9. Ulwazi lwesiteshi sesisekelo esiku-inthanethi

Ungabuka ulwazi lwezibalo ze-NE zokubonisana.

图片10

Isibalo 10 Izibalo zesignali ze-NE

Ungabuka izibalo zokugeleza ngesikhathi sangempela.

图片11

Umfanekiso 11 Izibalo zokugeleza

Imininingwane

Inethiwekhi yomgogodla elula njengamanje inezincazelo ezine, izinkomba zimi kanje.

Imikhiqizo emincane ye-5GC

I-Miniature 5GC

Inani eliphezulu leziteshi ezisekelwe ezixhunyiwe

1-4

Inani eliphezulu labasebenzisi abaku-inthanethi

200

ukugeleza kwesistimu

1Gbps

Ukwenziwa kwe-Virtualization / ukwenziwa kwe-container

Ukuhlanganiswa okuthambile nokuqinile

Ukubuyiselwa kwenhlekelele okuyinhloko okungu-1 + 1

ukungasekeli

Ukuthunyelwa okuhlangene noma okuzimele

okuhlanganisiwe

Imininingwane yehadiwe

I-CPU engu-4-core 2.0G 8GB inkumbulo engu-256GB SSD,

4*1G NIC

amandla

Amandla okunikezwa kwamandla: 84W

usayizi womkhiqizo

180×125×55 mm

izinga lokushisa elizungezile

Indawo esebenzayo: izinga lokushisa lokugcina -20℃ ~70℃Izinga lokushisa lokusebenza: -20℃ ~60℃

Umswakama wesitoreji: -40℃ ~80℃

Umswakama osebenzayo: 5% -95% umswakama ohlobene, akukho ukujiya

图片12

Umfanekiso 12 Ihadiwe yemikhiqizo emincane eyinhloko

Imikhiqizo emincane ye-5GC

I-5GC Encane

Inani eliphezulu leziteshi ezisekelwe ezixhunyiwe

10

Inani eliphezulu labasebenzisi abaku-inthanethi

4000

ukugeleza kwesistimu

3Gbps

Ukwenziwa kwe-Virtualization / ukwenziwa kwe-container

Ukuhlanganiswa okuthambile nokuqinile

Ukubuyiselwa kwenhlekelele okuyinhloko okungu-1 + 1

ukungasekeli

Ukuthunyelwa okuhlangene noma okuzimele

okuhlanganisiwe

Imininingwane yehadiwe

I-CPU 20 Threads 2.1G 8GB memory 500GB SSD,

2*10G NIC,2*1G NIC

amandla

Amandla okunikezwa kwamandla: 250W

izinga lokushisa elizungezile

Indawo esebenzayo: izinga lokushisa lokugcina -20℃ ~70℃Izinga lokushisa lokusebenza: -10℃ ~60℃

Umswakama wesitoreji: -40℃ ~80℃

Umswakama osebenzayo: 5% -95% umswakama ohlobene, akukho ukujiya

图片13

Umfanekiso 13 Ihadiwe yemikhiqizo emincane ye-5GC

Umkhiqizo we-5GC olula

Kuye ngezinsizakusebenza zehadiwe, kungaba khona izinhlobo ezahlukene zezincazelo ezisekelwayo.

Isisindo esilula esingu-5GC

Inani eliphezulu leziteshi ezisekelwe ezixhunyiwe

50

Inani eliphezulu labasebenzisi abaku-inthanethi

10,000

ukugeleza kwesistimu

15Gbps

Ukwenziwa kwe-Virtualization / ukwenziwa kwe-container

ukwesekwa

Ukubuyiselwa kwenhlekelele okuyinhloko okungu-1 + 1

ukwesekwa

Ukuthunyelwa okuhlangene noma okuzimele

ukwesekwa

Imininingwane yehadiwe

I-CPU 24 Threads 2.1G 16GB memory 500GB SSD,

2*25G NIC,2*1G NIC

Ifomu lehadiwe lingaba iseva ejwayelekile ehlukile, noma ukuthunyelwa kwe-virtualization yesikhungo sedatha yangasese.

图片14

Umfanekiso 14 Ihadiwe yeseva evamile ejwayelekile

Umkhiqizo ojwayelekile we-5GC

Imikhiqizo ejwayelekile ye-5GC ingafakwa ngokuya ngezidingo zangempela, njengemishini ebonakalayo, izitsha, noma amaseva.

Inani labasebenzisi abasebenzayo

inombolo yesisekelo

Ukudlula kwedatha ebusweni

Imodi yokusetshenziswa

Iseva noma i-VM

izidingo zehadiwe

20K

100

30Gbps

Ukuthunyelwa okuhlangene noma okusatshalalisiwe

Iyunithi eli-1 / ama-VM ama-2

I-36Core*2.2G, inkumbulo engu-32G, i-2 * 1G, kanye ne-2 * 40 G NIC

Ifomu lomkhiqizo

Sekela izinhlobo ezahlukene zemikhiqizo, ukuthunyelwa kwensizakalo okuzimele, ukuthunyelwa kwe-virtualization (umshini noma isitsha esibonakalayo), ukuthunyelwa kwe-cloud host.

Ukuthunyelwa okuguquguqukayo ngokwezidingo zamakhasimende kanye nesimo sangempela.

Ukuthuthukiswa okujwayelekile kwe-interface, kungenziwa ngezifiso ngokwezidingo zamakhasimende, kube nezimo ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nezidingo zangempela zamakhasimende.

图片15

Uhlelo lokuxhumana

➢ Imodi yokusabalalisa ehlanganisiwe, enamanethiwekhi amancane afanele izidingo ezishibhile.

图片16

➢ Imodi yokuxhumana evamile, efanele amanethiwekhi amancane naphakathi

图片17

  • Okwedlule:
  • Olandelayo:

  • Imikhiqizo Ehlobene